In the late fourteenth century and the fifteenth century, the schematic scrolling lotus designs of Buddhist origin were joined by more naturalistic depictions of flowers and fruit — chrysanthemums, grapes, camellias, hibiscus, peonies, and lotuses — which were often used as symbols of the four seasons. Archaic forms were now supplemented by other, newer forms deemed appropriate for use in domestic rituals and at the tables of the scholar class.
Objects from the reign of the Jiajing emperor (1522–67) display forms and decoration specifically characteristic of this period. For example, the presence of the character for longevity (shou) and depictions of cranes in the clouds indicate that an object was intended for Taoist ritual use. Other pieces combine Buddhist, Taoist, and even Confucian decorative motifs. In addition, this period saw a diversification of themes and motifs, including two mandarin ducks, a carp in a pool, and seahorses, among others.
During the second half of the sixteenth century, in the reign of the Wanli emperor (1573–1620), there was a marked increase in enamel production as well as a decline in craftsmanship. This trend would continue through the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, although the diversification of decorative motifs continued and the repertory of forms increased.
Under the Kangxi emperor (1662–1723), the first ruler of the Manchu Qing dynasty, significant decorative arts production resumed and imperial workshops were established within the Forbidden City. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, there was a resurgence of enamel production.
The last sixty years of the eighteenth century, the reign of the Qianlong emperor (1736–96), were marked by a growing interest in the arts in general and the decorative arts in particular. Advances in cloisonné technique and additions to the available palette of
enamels fostered an unprecedented increase in cloisonné production. The Manchus, fervent followers of Tantric Buddhism, commissioned many ritual objects for Buddhist temples, and there were numerous commissions for the imperial palaces and private
residences. The unprecedented variety of forms and decoration that resulted was accompanied by a resurgence of the taste for hidden symbols prevalent in the Ming dynasty.
The influence of the Qianlong reign remained strong through the first half of the nineteenth century but was accompanied by a decline in workmanship and aesthetic quality. During the reign of the Guangxu emperor (1875–1909), a renewal of production was sparked by widespread Western interest in the technique as a result of Chinese participation in international exhibitions of the time. Equally important political events, such as the sack of the summer palace during the Second Opium War in 1860 by British and French troops, prompted a rediscovery of cloisonné in Europe, especially in France. To illustrate the impact of these various influences and the renewal of the technique in late-nineteenth-century France, the exhibition will conclude with cloisonné enamels produced by Ferdinand Barbédienne and James Tissot.
The Catalogue: The Bard Graduate Center and the Musée des Arts décoratifs, in cooperation with Yale University Press, have published
Cloisonne: Chinese Enamels from the Ming and Qing Dynasties (Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts, Design & Culture) by Arthur Chu that incorporates advances in scholarship since the publication of the last important work in the field in English more than twenty years ago. Several essays by prominent scholars and catalogue entries are accompanied by reproductions of the exhibition objects, related illustrations, maps, a glossary, and a bibliography.
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